History of ancient Egypt

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Mesopotamian king as Master of the Animals on the Gebel el-Arak Knife dated circa 3300-3200 BCE, Abydos, Egypt. Louvre Museum reference E 11517

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History of Ancient Egypt covers the period from the early prehistoric settlements of the northern Nile valley to the Roman conquest in 30 BC. The Ancient Egyptian civilization followed prehistoric Egypt and coalesced around 3100 BC (according to conventional Egyptian chronology) with the political unification of Upper and Lower Egypt under the first pharaoh. This event marks the beginning of the Pharaonic era of Egyptian history.

Prehistoric Egypt

Before the unification of Egypt, the land was settled with autonomous villages. By the Paleolithic period, early Egyptians were using fire, tools, and were building structures. In the Neolithic period, several predynastic cultures developed independently in Upper and Lower Egypt. The Badarian culture, known for its high-quality ceramics, stone tools, and its use of copper, was one of the first to develop in Upper Egypt. The Gerzean culture, coming later, saw advancements in pottery and metallurgy, indicating increased trade and cultural exchange with neighboring regions.

Unification of Egypt

The unification of Upper and Lower Egypt is a pivotal event in the country's history, traditionally credited to Pharaoh Narmer (or Menes) around 3100 BC. This event is depicted in the Narmer Palette, which shows Narmer wearing the crowns of both Upper and Lower Egypt, symbolizing the unified state. The early dynastic period that followed saw the establishment of a centralized state, the development of hieroglyphic writing, and the construction of some of the first monumental buildings in Egypt.

Old Kingdom

The Old Kingdom (c. 2686–2181 BC) is known as the "Age of the Pyramids." During this time, Egypt enjoyed significant cultural and technological advancements. The most famous monuments from this period are the Pyramids of Giza and the Sphinx, built during the fourth dynasty. The Old Kingdom is also known for the development of a complex bureaucracy, with the pharaoh at the top and viziers, scribes, and officials assisting in the administration of the kingdom.

First Intermediate Period

The First Intermediate Period (c. 2181–2055 BC) was a time of political fragmentation and chaos. Following the collapse of the Old Kingdom, Egypt was divided into several small states. Famine and social unrest were common, as were conflicts between rival polities. However, this period also saw the development of local art forms and the continuation of many of the cultural traditions of the Old Kingdom.

Middle Kingdom

The Middle Kingdom (c. 2055–1650 BC) saw the reunification of Egypt under the leadership of Mentuhotep II of the Eleventh Dynasty. This period is characterized by stability, prosperity, and the reassertion of central authority. Literature, arts, and architecture flourished, with the construction of the Temple of Karnak and the expansion of trade routes.

Second Intermediate Period

The Second Intermediate Period (c. 1650–1550 BC) was marked by the division of Egypt between the Hyksos rulers in the north and the native Egyptian rulers in the south. The Hyksos introduced new technologies, including the horse and chariot, which would later be adopted by the Egyptians.

New Kingdom

The New Kingdom (c. 1550–1070 BC) is often considered the peak of Egyptian civilization. It was an era of aggressive expansion, led by pharaohs such as Hatshepsut, Thutmose III, and Ramesses II. The New Kingdom is known for its architectural achievements, including the Valley of the Kings and the temples of Luxor and Abu Simbel. The period also saw the development of the Amarna style of art, associated with Akhenaten and the worship of the sun disk, Aten.

Third Intermediate Period

The Third Intermediate Period (c. 1070–664 BC) was characterized by political instability and the division of Egypt into smaller dynasties. Despite this, the period saw a resurgence in art and culture, with significant contributions to literature, sculpture, and the preservation of Egypt's cultural heritage.

Late Period

The Late Period (c. 664–332 BC) saw the reunification of Egypt and a revival of its culture and economy. However, this period was also marked by foreign invasions, including the Assyrians and Persians, culminating in the conquest by Alexander the Great in 332 BC.

Ptolemaic Egypt

Following Alexander's death, Egypt came under the rule of the Ptolemaic dynasty, a Greek royal family. The Ptolemaic period (305–30 BC) is known for the blending of Egyptian and Hellenistic cultures, the establishment of Alexandria as a center of learning and culture, and the reign of Cleopatra VII, the last pharaoh of Egypt.

Roman Egypt

Egypt became a province of the Roman Empire in 30 BC after the defeat of Cleopatra and Mark Antony. The Roman period saw the continuation of Hellenistic culture and the gradual spread of Christianity, laying the foundations for the Byzantine period.

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