Philippic

Demosthenes orator Louvre

Manuscript of Cicero - BL Kings MS 21 f. 2

Philippics refer to a series of speeches delivered by Cicero, a prominent Roman statesman, orator, and writer, in 44-43 BC. These speeches are named after the Philippics of Demosthenes, who spoke against Philip II of Macedon in the 4th century BC. Cicero's Philippics were directed against Mark Antony, aiming to rally the Roman Senate and the public against him following the assassination of Julius Caesar. The term "Philippic" has since come to denote any bitter denunciation.

Background

After the assassination of Julius Caesar in 44 BC, Rome was plunged into a power vacuum with various factions vying for control. Mark Antony, one of Caesar's closest allies, sought to consolidate power, but faced opposition from those who feared the establishment of a new dictatorship. Cicero, who had been a critic of Caesar's rule, saw in Antony a threat to the Roman Republic's survival. Thus, he embarked on a series of speeches to denounce Antony's actions and policies.

The Speeches

Cicero's Philippics consist of 14 speeches, each escalating in intensity and directness of criticism against Antony. The First Philippic, delivered in September 44 BC, was relatively mild, calling for unity and peace in the aftermath of Caesar's death. However, as Antony's intentions became clearer, Cicero's speeches grew more vehement.

The Second Philippic is particularly famous for its vitriolic attacks on Antony's character, accusing him of everything from drunkenness to incompetence. Cicero argued that Antony was a threat to the republic's traditions and legal system, urging the Senate to declare him a public enemy.

Impact

The Philippics were influential in shaping public opinion against Antony and contributed to the temporary alliance between Octavian (later Augustus), Caesar's adopted son and heir, and the Senate. However, they also marked Cicero as a major enemy to Antony. After Antony formed the Second Triumvirate with Octavian and Lepidus, one of their first acts was to declare Cicero an outlaw. He was captured and executed in 43 BC, his hands and head displayed in the Roman Forum as a warning to others.

Legacy

The Philippics remain a significant example of Roman oratory and political maneuvering. They are studied not only for their historical value but also for their rhetorical brilliance and the light they shed on the turbulent period following Caesar's assassination. Cicero's use of language, his ability to sway public opinion, and his commitment to the ideals of the Republic have made the Philippics a subject of study in both classical and rhetorical studies.