Philosophical skepticism

School of Athens Skeptics

Philosopher, marble head, Roman copy, AM Corfu, Krfm22

Sextus

Augustine of Hippo Sandro Botticelli

Michel de Montaigne

Marin Mersenne by Balthasar Moncornet

Philosophical skepticism is a philosophical position in which one questions the validity of certain types of knowledge. Philosophical skeptics assert that it is difficult or impossible to attain certainty in knowledge beyond the immediate experience of consciousness. This stance is not to be confused with empirical skepticism, which relates to empirical evidence, but rather it deals with the epistemological question of what can be known, and the methods through which any knowledge is obtained.

History

The origins of philosophical skepticism can be traced back to ancient Greece, with the Skeptical schools of thought. The most notable among these were the Pyrrhonists, founded by Pyrrho in the 4th century BCE, who argued that since equally convincing arguments can be made for and against any disputed claim, one should suspend judgment to achieve peace of mind. This idea was later developed by Sextus Empiricus, whose works are the main source of knowledge about ancient skepticism.

During the Renaissance, skepticism was revived by thinkers like Michel de Montaigne, who was influenced by the rediscovery of Sextus Empiricus's writings. Montaigne's essays often explored the uncertainty of human knowledge and the limits of human reason.

In modern philosophy, skepticism has been a central topic of discussion, especially in the works of René Descartes, who used methodological skepticism as a means of finding indubitable truths, leading to his famous conclusion, "I think, therefore I am." Other philosophers, such as David Hume, took a more radical skeptical approach, questioning the existence of a necessary connection between cause and effect.

Types of Skepticism

Philosophical skepticism can be divided into several types, including:

• Epistemological skepticism: Questions the possibility of knowledge or certainty in various domains, such as the external world, the existence of God, or other minds.
• Moral skepticism: Doubts the objective basis of moral truths or the knowability of moral facts.
• Metaphysical skepticism: Challenges the assumptions about the nature of reality, questioning the existence of a material world beyond our perceptions.

Arguments and Counterarguments

Philosophical skeptics often employ various arguments to support their position, such as the argument from illusion, which suggests that our senses, which are our primary source of knowledge about the world, are not always reliable. Another common argument is the regress argument, which posits that any proposition requires a justification, which in turn requires its own justification, leading to an infinite regress and, ultimately, to the impossibility of certain knowledge.

Critics of skepticism argue that it is self-defeating, as the claim that "one cannot know anything" is itself a claim of knowledge. Others, like the pragmatists, argue that skepticism is irrelevant to practical life and that we should instead focus on beliefs that lead to successful action.

Impact

The impact of philosophical skepticism is widespread, influencing various fields such as science, where it has led to the development of the scientific method, emphasizing empirical evidence and the provisional nature of scientific knowledge. In ethics, skepticism has prompted discussions about the foundations of moral values and the objectivity of moral judgments.

See Also

• Empiricism
• Rationalism
• Critical thinking
• Agnosticism

Conclusion

Philosophical skepticism serves as a powerful tool for critical inquiry, challenging our assumptions and encouraging a deeper examination of the foundations of our beliefs and knowledge. While it raises difficult questions about the limits of human understanding, it also contributes to the advancement of knowledge by promoting a continuous questioning and reevaluation of our claims to know.