Second Opium War

The Second Opium War (1856–1860), also known as the Arrow War or the Anglo-French expedition to China, was a military conflict fought primarily between the United Kingdom and the Qing dynasty of China. The war, the second major conflict in the Opium Wars, was fought over issues such as the opium trade, diplomatic recognition, and the expansion of foreign trade in China.

Background

The roots of the Second Opium War can be traced back to the Treaty of Nanking that ended the First Opium War (1839–1842). This treaty, and others that followed, forced China to open several ports to foreign trade and cede Hong Kong to Britain. However, disputes over the interpretation and implementation of these treaties persisted, particularly regarding the rights of foreigners in China and the opium trade.

Outbreak

The immediate cause of the Second Opium War was the boarding of the lorcha Arrow by Chinese officials in 1856, on suspicion of piracy. The Arrow was a Chinese-owned ship flying the British flag. The British government, seeking to expand its trade rights in China, used the incident as a pretext to initiate military action.

Course of the War

The war saw a series of military engagements between the British and the Qing dynasty, with the French joining on the British side in 1857, following the execution of a French missionary in China. The conflict featured several key battles, including the capture of Canton in 1857, and the Battle of Taku Forts in 1858 and 1860.

The most significant event of the war was the Convention of Peking in 1860, which concluded the hostilities. Under this treaty, China was forced to legalize the opium trade, cede Kowloon to Britain, and open up several more cities to foreign trade. Additionally, the treaty granted foreign envoys the right to live in Beijing and established the freedom of movement for foreigners in China.

Aftermath

The Second Opium War marked a significant expansion of Western influence in China. The unequal treaties imposed on China after the war further eroded the sovereignty of the Qing dynasty and contributed to the century of humiliation, a period during which China was subjected to foreign domination and internal strife.

The war also had significant implications for the global balance of power, demonstrating the military superiority of European powers over China and encouraging further imperialist encroachments in Asia.

Legacy

The Second Opium War is a controversial and complex event in world history. It is often cited as a prime example of imperial aggression and exploitation. The war and its aftermath have had a lasting impact on Chinese nationalism and the country's modern history, shaping China's foreign relations and its stance on sovereignty and territorial integrity.