Sol Invictus

Stele Sol Invictus Terme

Disc Sol BM GR1899.12-1.2

Follis-Constantine-lyons RIC VI 309

Licinius315 Soli Invicto Comiti

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ProbusCoin

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Antoninianus-Aurelianus-Palmyra-s3262

Sol Invictus ("Unconquered Sun") was the official sun god of the later Roman Empire and a patron of soldiers. On 25 December AD 274, the Roman emperor Aurelian made it an official cult alongside the traditional Roman cults. Scholars disagree about whether the new deity was a refoundation of the ancient Latin cult of Sol, a revival of the cult of Elagabalus, or completely new. The god was favored by emperors after Aurelian and appeared on their coins until Constantine I. The last inscription referring to Sol Invictus dates to AD 387, and there were enough devotees in the 5th century that the Christian theologian Augustine found it necessary to preach against them.

Origins and Development

The origins of Sol Invictus are not entirely clear. The cult can be seen as a continuation of the worship of Sol, the Roman sun god, whose worship dates back to the early Roman Republic. However, the establishment of Sol Invictus as a specific deity with its own priesthood and temples was a development of the 3rd century AD, under the influence of the emperors, particularly Aurelian. This development may have been influenced by the solar monotheism promoted by the Syrian emperors of the Severan dynasty, such as Elagabalus, who brought the worship of the Syrian sun god El-Gabal to Rome, renaming him Deus Sol Invictus.

Cult Practices and Beliefs

The cult of Sol Invictus included the holding of games (ludi), the dedication of temples, and the minting of coins bearing the image of the god. The most important festival of Sol Invictus was held on December 25, the Dies Natalis of Sol Invictus, which may have been chosen to coincide with the winter solstice and the Roman festival of Saturnalia, a time of feasting and goodwill. Additionally, the date later became significant to Christians as Christmas, the supposed birthday of Jesus Christ, which led to speculation about the influence of the Sol Invictus festival on the timing of Christmas.

Integration and Decline

The worship of Sol Invictus was integrated into the Roman state religion, and the god was particularly favored by soldiers and emperors, who saw in him a symbol of the eternal power of the Roman Empire. However, with the rise of Christianity as the state religion of the Roman Empire under Constantine I and his successors, the cult of Sol Invictus began to decline. The last known official celebration of the festival of Sol Invictus took place in AD 387. However, the imagery and some aspects of the cult were absorbed into Christian practice, such as the use of the halo to represent sanctity, which was derived from the depiction of Sol Invictus with a radiant crown.

Legacy

Despite its decline, the cult of Sol Invictus has left a lasting legacy in Western culture, particularly through its influence on the celebration of Christmas and the imagery associated with Christian saints. The concept of a monotheistic or henotheistic solar deity also had an influence on later religious thought and symbolism.