Kalam

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Saeed Fouda 2

Kalam (Arabic: علم الكلام‎, "science of discourse"), also known as Islamic theology, is an Islamic discipline that seeks to articulate and defend the doctrinal positions of Islam. Rooted in the Quran and Hadith, Kalam emerged as a scholarly response to the challenges posed by philosophical, theological, and sectarian debates within and outside the Islamic community. It addresses questions about the attributes of God, free will versus predestination, the nature of faith and reason, and the problem of evil.

Origins and Development

The origins of Kalam can be traced back to the early Islamic centuries when Muslims encountered various philosophical and theological ideas from the Greek, Persian, and Indian traditions. The need to defend Islamic beliefs against these influences led to the development of a systematic theological framework. Early Islamic theologians, known as Mutakallimun (singular: Mutakallim), engaged in debates with representatives of other faiths and sects, using rational arguments to support their views.

The development of Kalam is often divided into three main periods: 1. The Formative Period (8th-9th centuries), where foundational debates and discussions took place, leading to the establishment of the major schools of Kalam, namely the Ash'ari, Maturidi, and Mu'tazila. 2. The Classical Period (10th-12th centuries), during which Kalam reached its zenith. Theologians refined and expanded upon earlier works, engaging deeply with philosophical questions and integrating Aristotelian logic into their arguments. 3. The Post-Classical Period (13th century onwards), marked by a decline in the influence of Mu'tazilism and the dominance of Ash'ari and Maturidi thought, which continued to evolve in response to new intellectual challenges.

Major Schools

1. 1. 1. Mu'tazila

The Mu'tazila school is known for its emphasis on the unity and justice of God, the use of rational thought in theological matters, and the assertion that the Quran was created. They held that humans have free will and are responsible for their actions, which God judges with perfect justice.

1. 1. 1. Ash'ari

Founded by Abu al-Hasan al-Ash'ari (d. 935), the Ash'ari school sought a middle path between the strict rationalism of the Mu'tazila and the literalism of traditionalist theologians. It affirmed the transcendence and unknowability of God, while also accepting the use of reason in understanding divine attributes and Quranic texts.

1. 1. 1. Maturidi

Similar to the Ash'ari school, the Maturidi school, founded by Abu Mansur al-Maturidi (d. 944), emphasizes the role of reason in understanding faith. It is known for its teachings on the nature of God, divine will, and human freedom, and has been influential in the Hanafi school of Islamic jurisprudence.

Key Concepts

Kalam deals with several core theological concepts, including: - Tawhid: The oneness and uniqueness of God. - Adalah: The justice of God. - Nubuwwah: Prophethood and the role of prophets in guiding humanity. - Ma'ad: The Day of Judgment and the afterlife. - Qadar: Divine decree and predestination.

Influence and Criticism

Kalam has played a crucial role in shaping Islamic thought and doctrine. It has influenced other Islamic sciences, such as Fiqh (Islamic jurisprudence) and Sufism (Islamic mysticism). However, it has also faced criticism from some quarters within Islam, particularly from those who argue that it introduces speculative philosophy into religion, potentially leading to deviation from the Quran and Hadith.

Contemporary Relevance

In the modern era, Kalam has experienced a revival of interest as Muslims seek to engage with contemporary philosophical and scientific challenges. It continues to be a vital field of study in Islamic seminaries and universities, contributing to ongoing discussions on faith, reason, and the nature of the divine.