Neo-Confucianism

庐山白鹿洞书院周敦颐铜像

Cho Kwang-jo in 1750

Chu Van An

Neo-Confucianism is a philosophical and ethical doctrine that emerged in China during the Song Dynasty, evolving from Confucianism to address Buddhist and Daoist challenges. It became the dominant ideology in China by the Ming Dynasty and spread to other East Asian countries, notably Korea, Japan, and Vietnam. Neo-Confianism sought to reinterpret Confucian teachings to address contemporary social and spiritual issues, emphasizing moral self-cultivation and the unity of the metaphysical and physical worlds.

Origins and Development

Neo-Confucianism developed as a response to the dominance of Buddhism and Daoism in China during the early Tang Dynasty. Scholars like Zhou Dunyi, Zhang Zai, Cheng Hao, and Cheng Yi laid the groundwork for Neo-Confucian thought in the 11th century. However, it was Zhu Xi (1130–1200) who systematized Neo-Confucianism, integrating moral, metaphysical, and cosmological aspects into a coherent framework. Zhu Xi's commentaries on the Four Books—a selection of Confucian scriptures—became the standard curriculum for civil service examinations in China for centuries.

Philosophical Concepts

Neo-Confucianism incorporates several key concepts:

• Li (Principle): The underlying principle that governs the cosmos and human nature.
• Qi (Vital energy): The material force that constitutes the physical world.
• Xin (Mind/Heart): The seat of moral and rational faculties in humans.
• Ren (Benevolence): The fundamental virtue of Confucian ethics, emphasizing compassion and empathy towards others.
• Wu-wei (Non-action): A Daoist concept adopted by Neo-Confucians to denote effortless action in harmony with the cosmos.

Impact and Legacy

Neo-Confucianism profoundly influenced Chinese society, shaping its moral values, social hierarchy, and government policies. It also played a crucial role in the development of East Asian philosophical thought, impacting Korean Joseon Dynasty's governance, Japanese Edo period's ethical codes, and Vietnamese court rituals.

In the modern era, Neo-Confucianism has been subject to criticism and reevaluation. Critics argue that its rigid moral and social codes stifled innovation and individual freedom. However, contemporary scholars and practitioners seek to apply Neo-Confucian principles to address modern ethical dilemmas and social issues.

See Also

• Confucianism
• Buddhism in China
• Daoism
• Chinese Philosophy
• Korean Confucianism
• Japanese Confucianism
• Vietnamese Confucianism

Further Reading

• The Works of Zhu Xi
• The Four Books
• Studies in Neo-Confucianism throughout history