Xenophagy

Xenophagy and Allotrophy in Biological Consumption Patterns

Introduction[edit | edit source]

Xenophagy (from the Greek words for "strange" + "eating") and allotrophy (Greek "other" + "nutrient") represent shifts or variations in the traditional patterns of biological consumption by individual organisms or entire groups.

Xenophagy[edit | edit source]

In the realm of entomology, xenophagy is characterized by a profound and categorical alteration in dietary habits. This can manifest in several distinct manners:

An herbivore transitioning to a carnivorous diet.
A predator adapting to a necrophagous (feeding on the dead) diet.
A coprophage (dung-eating organism) turning either necrophagous or carnivorous.
Any reversal of the aforementioned dietary shifts.^[1]

Allotrophy[edit | edit source]

Allotrophy, in contrast to xenophagy, signifies a more nuanced shift in dietary preferences. Instead of a complete change, it is about diversifying or slightly altering the existing diet. Examples include:

The 7-spot ladybird, predominantly consuming aphids, but occasionally supplementing its diet with pollen.^[2]
The phenomenon of allotrophy is also observed in the Israeli Longitarsus beetles, wherein certain members are found to feed on hosts that are entirely unrelated to their regular diet.^[3]

• In microbiology, xenophagy is the process by which a cell directs autophagy against pathogens, as reflected in the study of antiviral defenses.^[4] Cellular xenophagy is an innate component of immune responses,^[5] though the general importance of xenophagy is not yet certain.^[6]^[7]^[8]

• In ecology, allotrophy is also reflected in eutrophication, being a change in nutrient source such as an aquatic ecosystem^[9]^[10]^[11] that starts receiving new nutrients from drainage of the surrounding land.^[12]

Implications[edit | edit source]

The understanding of xenophagy and allotrophy is critical for many reasons. It provides insights into:

Adaptive strategies of organisms.
Evolutionary implications of dietary shifts.
The potential impact of changing environmental conditions on feeding habits.

Conclusion[edit | edit source]

Both xenophagy and allotrophy offer a fascinating glimpse into the flexible and adaptive nature of dietary habits in the animal kingdom, particularly within the realm of entomology. Such shifts in consumption patterns can serve as indicators of broader ecological changes and underline the importance of continued study in this domain.

References[edit | edit source]

↑ Insects and plants: parallel evolution and adaptations - Page 29 Pierre Jolivet - 1986 "Xenophagy is a complete change in diet, the herbivorous diet becoming carnivorous or vice versa, predators becoming necrophagous, coprophages becoming necrophagous or carnivorous, and so on."
↑ Sven Erik Jørgensen Encyclopedia of Ecology: P-S Page 2924 2008 "Allotrophy is also widespread among insects, an example being the 7-spot ladybird, whose diet is mainly based on aphids (plant lice) but often includes pollen, too."
↑ Israel journal of entomology Volumes 12-14 - Page 138 Entomological Society of Israel - 1978 "Jolivet (1953, 1967, and in litt., 1976) has used the term allotrophy for the cases where a beetle is found to feed on a completely unrelated host from its normally ... There are several apparent cases of allotrophy in Israeli Longitarsus (Table 1). "
↑ Fernando E. Vega, Harry K. Kaya Insect Pathology Page 470 - 2012 "The process whereby the cell directs its autophagy machinery toward killing pathogens is termed xenophagy (Levine, 2005). Xenophagy is thought to play a role in antiviral defenses (Sabin et al., 2010), although there are few data on these interactions. While the specific molecules controlling this process are poorly understood, they are expected to share similarities ..."
↑ Diane Elizabeth Alexander, Multiple functions of the herpes simplex virus type 1 Page 86 Washington University in St. Louis - 2008 "Xenophagy is proving to be an important component of the innate immune response to viral infections. Neuronal expression of the mammalian autophagy promoting protein Beclin 1 protects mice against lethal Sindbis virus encephalitis "
↑ John P. Greer, John Foerster, George M. Rodgers Wintrobe's Clinical Hematology Volume 2 - Page 271 2008 "The general importance of xenophagy is not yet certain. Among the key components that are transferred to the phagosome and are critical in creating an antimicrobial environment are the vacuole ATPase, NOS2, and phagocyte oxidase ..."
↑ Issues in Biological, Biochemical, and Evolutionary Sciences "We also find that the invasive efficiency of group A Streptococcus into cells is not altered by knockdown of VAMP8 or Vti1b, whereas cellular bactericidal efficiency is significantly diminished, indicating that xenophagy is functionally impaired."
↑ Baruch Velan, Avigdor Shafferman, Arie Ordentlich -The Challenge of Highly Pathogenic Microorganisms Page 31 2010 "Furthermore, studies have shown the ability of Y. pestis to survive in macrophages activated with the cytokine IFNγ. Some vacuolar pathogens appear to co-opt the process of autophagy for survival in host cells. Alternatively, xenophagy is an ..."
↑ Eutrophication: causes, consequences, correctives Page 53 National Academy of Sciences (U.S.) - 1969 "The allotrophy of a lake indicates the intensity of organic supply from its environment. According to the first statement, trophy should not be equated with the status of nutrient conditions, as advocated by Findenegg (1955)."
↑ Handbook of Inland Aquatic Ecosystem Management - Page 16 Sven Erik Jorgensen, Jose Galizia Tundisi, Takako Matsumura Tundisi - 2012 (L 1 ) “Allotrophy” (heterotrophic pathway) “Autotrophy” (autotrophic pathway)
↑ Productivity of world ecosystems Page 90 International Council of Scientific Unions. Special Committee for the International Biological Programme - 1975 "DEGREE OF ALLOTROPHY IN STREAMS The role of allochthonous organic matter in stream economy was ... However, the measurement of the degree of allotrophy has been attempted only recently and by a few stream ecologists.
↑ Academic Press Dictionary of Science and Technology- Page 80 Christopher G. Morris, Academic Press - 1992 "Thus, allotroph, allotrophy. allotrophic lake Ecology, a lake that receives organic material by drainage from the surrounding land. allotropic relating to or characterized by allotropy. Also, ALLOTROPHIC. allotropy Chemistry, the property ..."

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[1] Insects and plants: parallel evolution and adaptations - Page 29 Pierre Jolivet - 1986 "Xenophagy is a complete change in diet, the herbivorous diet becoming carnivorous or vice versa, predators becoming necrophagous, coprophages becoming necrophagous or carnivorous, and so on."

[2] Sven Erik Jørgensen Encyclopedia of Ecology: P-S Page 2924 2008 "Allotrophy is also widespread among insects, an example being the 7-spot ladybird, whose diet is mainly based on aphids (plant lice) but often includes pollen, too."

[3] Israel journal of entomology Volumes 12-14 - Page 138 Entomological Society of Israel - 1978 "Jolivet (1953, 1967, and in litt., 1976) has used the term allotrophy for the cases where a beetle is found to feed on a completely unrelated host from its normally ... There are several apparent cases of allotrophy in Israeli Longitarsus (Table 1). "

[4] Fernando E. Vega, Harry K. Kaya Insect Pathology Page 470 - 2012 "The process whereby the cell directs its autophagy machinery toward killing pathogens is termed xenophagy (Levine, 2005). Xenophagy is thought to play a role in antiviral defenses (Sabin et al., 2010), although there are few data on these interactions. While the specific molecules controlling this process are poorly understood, they are expected to share similarities ..."

[5] Diane Elizabeth Alexander, Multiple functions of the herpes simplex virus type 1 Page 86 Washington University in St. Louis - 2008 "Xenophagy is proving to be an important component of the innate immune response to viral infections. Neuronal expression of the mammalian autophagy promoting protein Beclin 1 protects mice against lethal Sindbis virus encephalitis "

[6] John P. Greer, John Foerster, George M. Rodgers Wintrobe's Clinical Hematology Volume 2 - Page 271 2008 "The general importance of xenophagy is not yet certain. Among the key components that are transferred to the phagosome and are critical in creating an antimicrobial environment are the vacuole ATPase, NOS2, and phagocyte oxidase ..."

[7] Issues in Biological, Biochemical, and Evolutionary Sciences "We also find that the invasive efficiency of group A Streptococcus into cells is not altered by knockdown of VAMP8 or Vti1b, whereas cellular bactericidal efficiency is significantly diminished, indicating that xenophagy is functionally impaired."

[8] Baruch Velan, Avigdor Shafferman, Arie Ordentlich -The Challenge of Highly Pathogenic Microorganisms Page 31 2010 "Furthermore, studies have shown the ability of Y. pestis to survive in macrophages activated with the cytokine IFNγ. Some vacuolar pathogens appear to co-opt the process of autophagy for survival in host cells. Alternatively, xenophagy is an ..."

[9] Eutrophication: causes, consequences, correctives Page 53 National Academy of Sciences (U.S.) - 1969 "The allotrophy of a lake indicates the intensity of organic supply from its environment. According to the first statement, trophy should not be equated with the status of nutrient conditions, as advocated by Findenegg (1955)."

[10] Handbook of Inland Aquatic Ecosystem Management - Page 16 Sven Erik Jorgensen, Jose Galizia Tundisi, Takako Matsumura Tundisi - 2012 (L 1 ) “Allotrophy” (heterotrophic pathway) “Autotrophy” (autotrophic pathway)

[11] Productivity of world ecosystems Page 90 International Council of Scientific Unions. Special Committee for the International Biological Programme - 1975 "DEGREE OF ALLOTROPHY IN STREAMS The role of allochthonous organic matter in stream economy was ... However, the measurement of the degree of allotrophy has been attempted only recently and by a few stream ecologists.

[12] Academic Press Dictionary of Science and Technology- Page 80 Christopher G. Morris, Academic Press - 1992 "Thus, allotroph, allotrophy. allotrophic lake Ecology, a lake that receives organic material by drainage from the surrounding land. allotropic relating to or characterized by allotropy. Also, ALLOTROPHIC. allotropy Chemistry, the property ..."

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