Glossary of philosophy

Glossary of Philosophy

This glossary of philosophy is a collection of definitions and explanations of terms and concepts commonly used in the field of philosophy. Philosophy is a broad discipline that involves the study of fundamental questions about existence, knowledge, values, reason, mind, and language. This glossary aims to provide a comprehensive overview of key philosophical terms and ideas.

A

A priori

A term used to describe knowledge that is independent of experience. A priori knowledge is contrasted with a posteriori knowledge, which is derived from experience. For example, mathematical truths are often considered a priori.

A posteriori

Knowledge that is dependent on experience or empirical evidence. A posteriori knowledge is contrasted with a priori knowledge. Scientific knowledge is typically considered a posteriori.

B

Being

A fundamental concept in philosophy that refers to existence or the nature of existence. The study of being is known as ontology.

Bivalence

The principle that there are only two truth values, true and false, for any given proposition. This principle is central to classical logic.

C

Categorical imperative

A central concept in the moral philosophy of Immanuel Kant. It is a universal moral law that applies to all rational beings and is independent of any personal motive or desire.

Causality

The relationship between cause and effect. In philosophy, causality is a central topic in metaphysics and epistemology.

D

Dualism

The view that the mind and body are fundamentally distinct kinds of substances or realities. René Descartes is one of the most famous proponents of dualism.

Determinism

The philosophical view that all events are determined completely by previously existing causes. Determinism is often contrasted with free will.

E

Epistemology

The branch of philosophy concerned with the nature and scope of knowledge. It addresses questions such as "What is knowledge?" and "How is knowledge acquired?"

Existentialism

A philosophical movement that emphasizes individual existence, freedom, and choice. Existentialism is associated with philosophers such as Jean-Paul Sartre and Albert Camus.

F

Free will

The ability of agents to make choices free from certain kinds of constraints. Free will is often discussed in contrast to determinism.

Falsifiability

A principle in the philosophy of science that a hypothesis must be inherently disprovable before it can be accepted as a scientific hypothesis.

G

God

A central concept in many religious and philosophical traditions, often defined as the supreme being, creator, and principal object of faith.

Good

A concept in ethics and philosophy that denotes the desirable or morally right. The nature of "the good" is a central question in ethics.

H

Hedonism

The ethical theory that pleasure is the highest good and proper aim of human life. Hedonism is often contrasted with asceticism.

Humanism

A philosophical stance that emphasizes the value and agency of human beings, individually and collectively.

I

Idealism

The philosophical theory that reality is fundamentally mental or immaterial. George Berkeley is a well-known proponent of idealism.

Induction

A method of reasoning in which the premises are viewed as supplying some evidence for the truth of the conclusion. Inductive reasoning is often contrasted with deductive reasoning.

J

Justice

A concept of moral rightness based on ethics, rationality, law, natural law, religion, equity, and fairness.

Justification

The process of showing something to be right or reasonable. In epistemology, justification is a key component of knowledge.

K

Knowledge

Traditionally defined as "justified true belief," knowledge is a central topic in epistemology.

Kantianism

The philosophy of Immanuel Kant, which emphasizes the role of duty and moral law.

L

Logic

The study of reasoning and argument. Logic is a foundational discipline in philosophy.

Libertarianism (metaphysics)

The philosophical belief in free will, which holds that individuals have the ability to make free choices.

M

Metaphysics

The branch of philosophy that studies the fundamental nature of reality, including concepts such as being, existence, and reality.

Moral relativism

The view that moral judgments are true or false only relative to some particular standpoint, such as a cultural or historical context.

N

Nihilism

The philosophical viewpoint that suggests the denial or lack of belief in meaningful aspects of life. Nihilism is often associated with extreme pessimism and radical skepticism.

Naturalism

The idea or belief that only natural laws and forces operate in the world. Naturalism is often contrasted with supernaturalism.

O

Ontology

The branch of metaphysics dealing with the nature of being. Ontology is concerned with questions about what entities exist or can be said to exist.

Objectivism

A philosophy developed by Ayn Rand, which advocates for rational self-interest and the pursuit of one's own happiness as the highest moral purpose.

P

Phenomenology

A philosophical movement that describes the structures of experience and consciousness. Edmund Husserl is a key figure in phenomenology.

Pragmatism

A philosophical tradition that considers words and thought as tools and instruments for prediction, problem-solving, and action.

Q

Qualia

The subjective, qualitative properties of experiences. Qualia are often discussed in the context of the philosophy of mind.

Quineanism

The philosophical views of Willard Van Orman Quine, particularly his rejection of the analytic-synthetic distinction.

R

Rationalism

The epistemological view that regards reason as the chief source and test of knowledge. Rationalism is often contrasted with empiricism.

Relativism

The idea that views are relative to differences in perception and consideration. There are many forms of relativism, including moral relativism and cultural relativism.

S

Skepticism

A philosophical attitude of doubting the knowledge claims set forth in various areas. Skepticism can be applied to any topic, including religion, morality, and science.

Stoicism

A school of Hellenistic philosophy founded in Athens by Zeno of Citium. Stoicism teaches the development of self-control and fortitude as a means of overcoming destructive emotions.

T

Teleology

The study of the purposes or goals that processes or entities are directed towards. Teleology is often contrasted with mechanism.

Truth

A concept in philosophy that is concerned with the nature of truth and the criteria by which statements are judged to be true or false.

U

Utilitarianism

An ethical theory that posits that the best action is the one that maximizes utility, usually defined as that which produces the greatest well-being of the greatest number of people.

Universalism

The philosophical and theological concept that some ideas have universal application or applicability.

V

Virtue ethics

An approach to ethics that emphasizes the role of character and virtue in moral philosophy rather than either doing one's duty or acting in order to bring about good consequences.

Voluntarism

The doctrine that the will is a fundamental or dominant factor in the individual or the universe.

W

Will to power

A concept in the philosophy of Friedrich Nietzsche. It describes what Nietzsche may have believed to be the main driving force in humans.

Wisdom

The ability to think and act using knowledge, experience, understanding, common sense, and insight.

X

Xenophanes

An ancient Greek philosopher known for his critique of traditional Greek religion and his advocacy of a form of pantheism.

Y

Yin and Yang

A concept in Chinese philosophy that describes how seemingly opposite or contrary forces may actually be complementary, interconnected, and interdependent in the natural world.

Z

Zeno's paradoxes

A set of philosophical problems devised by Zeno of Elea to support Parmenides' doctrine that "all is one" and that contrary to the evidence of one's senses, the belief in plurality and change is mistaken.

Zen

A school of Mahayana Buddhism that emphasizes the value of meditation and intuition rather than ritual worship or study of scriptures.