Richard Axel

Hypertension
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Synonyms	N/A
Pronounce	N/A
Specialty	N/A
Symptoms	Headache, dizziness, shortness of breath
Complications	Heart disease, stroke, kidney failure
Onset	Gradual
Duration	Long term
Types	N/A
Causes	Genetics, diet, lifestyle
Risks	Obesity, smoking, alcohol consumption
Diagnosis	Blood pressure measurement
Differential diagnosis	N/A
Prevention	N/A
Treatment	Lifestyle changes, medication
Medication	N/A
Prognosis	N/A
Frequency	Common
Deaths	N/A

Hypertension, also known as high blood pressure, is a chronic medical condition in which the blood pressure in the arteries is persistently elevated. It is a major risk factor for cardiovascular disease, including heart attack and stroke.

Signs and Symptoms

Hypertension is often called the "silent killer" because it typically has no symptoms until it has caused significant damage to the heart and arteries. Some people with high blood pressure may experience headaches, dizziness, or shortness of breath.

Causes

The exact cause of hypertension is often unknown, but several factors can contribute to its development, including:

• Genetics
• Unhealthy diet, particularly high salt intake
• Lack of physical activity
• Obesity
• Excessive alcohol consumption
• Smoking

Diagnosis

Hypertension is diagnosed by measuring blood pressure using a sphygmomanometer. A reading of 140/90 mmHg or higher is generally considered high.

Treatment

Treatment for hypertension typically involves lifestyle changes and medication. Lifestyle changes may include:

• Eating a healthy diet
• Reducing salt intake
• Engaging in regular physical activity
• Maintaining a healthy weight
• Limiting alcohol consumption
• Quitting smoking

Medications used to treat hypertension include diuretics, beta-blockers, ACE inhibitors, and calcium channel blockers.

Complications

If left untreated, hypertension can lead to serious health problems, including:

• Heart disease
• Stroke
• Kidney failure
• Vision loss

Prevention

Preventing hypertension involves adopting a healthy lifestyle, such as eating a balanced diet, exercising regularly, and avoiding tobacco and excessive alcohol use.

See Also

• Cardiovascular disease
• Blood pressure
• Heart attack

External Links

• World Health Organization: Hypertension
• CDC: High Blood Pressure Richard Axel (born July 2, 1946) is an American neuroscientist and geneticist renowned for his work in the field of olfactory system research. He was awarded the Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine in 2004, sharing the prize with Linda B. Buck for their discoveries of "odorant receptors and the organization of the olfactory system." This groundbreaking work not only advanced our understanding of how the brain interprets smells but also opened new pathways for researching the neural coding of sensory information.

Early Life and Education

Richard Axel was born in Brooklyn, New York, to immigrant parents. He developed an interest in science at a young age, which led him to pursue his undergraduate degree at Columbia University in New York City, where he majored in biology. After completing his bachelor's degree, Axel continued his education at the Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine, earning his M.D. in 1970.

Career and Research

After receiving his medical degree, Axel returned to Columbia University for his postdoctoral work, eventually joining the faculty. His early research focused on understanding how genes are regulated in cells. In the 1980s, Axel's interest shifted towards the nervous system, particularly the mechanisms underlying the sense of smell. In a landmark study published in 1991, Axel and Buck described a large family of genes that code for olfactory receptor proteins in the nose. These receptors detect odorous molecules, initiating a signal transduction pathway that allows the brain to perceive different smells. Their discovery revealed that each olfactory receptor neuron expresses only one type of receptor, and the receptors are spatially organized in the nose. This work provided the first molecular insight into how smells are detected and processed by the brain.

Awards and Honors

Richard Axel's contributions to science have been recognized with numerous awards and honors, including the Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine in 2004. He is also a member of the National Academy of Sciences and has received the Gairdner Foundation International Award and the Harvey Prize.

Legacy and Impact

Axel's research has had a profound impact on the field of neuroscience, particularly in understanding sensory perception. His work on the olfactory system has paved the way for further studies on how the brain processes information from other senses. Additionally, the discovery of odorant receptors has implications for the study of pheromones and their effects on behavior.

Selected Publications

• Axel, R., & Buck, L.B. (1991). A novel multigene family may encode odorant receptors: A molecular basis for odor recognition. Cell, 65(1), 175-187.

See Also

• Neuroscience
• Genetics
• Sensory system
• Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine