Social contract

The social contract is a theory or model that originated during the Age of Enlightenment and typically concerns the legitimacy of the authority of the state over the individual. Social contract arguments typically posit that individuals have consented, either explicitly or tacitly, to surrender some of their freedoms and submit to the authority of the ruler or magistrate (or to the decision of a majority) in exchange for protection of their remaining rights.

Historical Background

The concept of the social contract is historically associated with modern moral and political theory and is given its first full exposition and defense by Thomas Hobbes. After Hobbes, John Locke and Jean-Jacques Rousseau are the best known proponents of this enormously influential theory, which has been one of the most dominant theories within moral and political theory throughout the history of the modern West.

Thomas Hobbes

Thomas Hobbes (1588–1679) is best known for his work Leviathan (1651), in which he expounds an influential formulation of social contract theory. According to Hobbes, in the state of nature, individuals are in a "war of all against all" (bellum omnium contra omnes), and life is "solitary, poor, nasty, brutish, and short." To escape this, individuals collectively agree to create a state through a social contract, ceding some of their freedoms to a sovereign in exchange for security and order.

John Locke

John Locke (1632–1704) is another prominent social contract theorist, whose views are expressed in his work Two Treatises of Government (1689). Locke's theory is grounded in the idea of natural rights and the belief that the state of nature is characterized by reason and tolerance. However, he also acknowledges that the state of nature can devolve into a state of war. Locke argues that individuals consent to form a government to protect their natural rights to life, liberty, and property.

Jean-Jacques Rousseau

Jean-Jacques Rousseau (1712–1778) presented his social contract theory in The Social Contract (1762). Rousseau's theory differs significantly from that of Hobbes and Locke. He posits that in the state of nature, humans are noble savages who are free, equal, and peaceful. However, the development of private property leads to social inequality and conflict. Rousseau argues that individuals can achieve true freedom by entering into a social contract and forming a collective "general will" that represents the common good.

Modern Interpretations

In contemporary political philosophy, the social contract theory has been revived and revised by philosophers such as John Rawls and David Gauthier. Rawls, in his work A Theory of Justice (1971), introduces the idea of the "original position" and the "veil of ignorance" as a way of determining the principles of justice that rational individuals would agree to in a hypothetical social contract.

Criticisms

Social contract theory has faced various criticisms. Some argue that it is based on a historical fiction, as there is no evidence that such a contract ever existed. Others criticize it for justifying the status quo and for failing to address issues of power and inequality. Feminist and critical race theorists have also critiqued the social contract for excluding women and people of color from the category of individuals who are considered capable of entering into a contract.

See Also

• Natural law
• Political philosophy
• State of nature
• Civil society
• General will
• Legitimacy