Biomedical Imaging

Medical imaging encompasses a range of techniques and processes used to create visual representations of the interior of a body for clinical analysis and medical intervention. It plays a crucial role in the diagnosis, treatment planning, and monitoring of diseases, as well as in medical research. The field combines elements of physics, computer science, biology, and engineering to develop technologies that noninvasively (or minimally invasively) visualize internal structures and functions.

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History

The history of medical imaging began with the discovery of X-rays by Wilhelm Conrad Röntgen in 1895, revolutionizing the way physicians could see inside the body without surgery. Since then, the field has expanded to include a variety of imaging modalities, each suited for different applications and offering different kinds of information about the body.

Modalities

The main modalities in medical imaging include:

• Radiography: Uses X-rays to produce images. It is one of the oldest and most widely used techniques.
• Computed Tomography (CT): Also known as CAT scans, CT uses X-rays to produce cross-sectional images of the body.
• Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI): Employs powerful magnets and radio waves to generate detailed images of organs and tissues.
• Ultrasound Imaging: Utilizes high-frequency sound waves to capture live images from inside the body, commonly used in obstetrics.
• Nuclear Medicine: Including Positron Emission Tomography (PET) and Single Photon Emission Computed Tomography (SPECT), these techniques use radioactive substances to visualize and measure changes in metabolic processes.
• Fluoroscopy: A technique that provides real-time X-ray images, often used to guide diagnostic and treatment procedures.

Nanoparticles; Medical Imaging

Specialized Techniques

Beyond the primary modalities, advancements in technology have led to the development of specialized imaging techniques such as:

• Functional MRI (fMRI): Measures brain activity by detecting changes in blood flow.
• Optical Coherence Tomography (OCT): Employs near-infrared light to obtain high-resolution images of the retina and anterior segment of the eye.
• Diffusion Tensor Imaging (DTI): A type of MRI that maps the diffusion process of molecules, mainly water, in biological tissues, useful in neural imaging.
• Photoacoustic Imaging: Combines optical and ultrasonic imaging to improve contrast and spatial resolution beyond what traditional ultrasound can achieve.

Applications

Medical imaging is indispensable across various medical fields, not only for diagnosis and treatment but also for preventive medicine and research. Applications include:

• Diagnosing diseases and injuries
• Guiding surgical procedures and biopsies
• Planning and monitoring treatment
• Studying diseases in research
• Screening for medical conditions

Future Directions

The future of medical imaging is being shaped by innovations in Artificial Intelligence (AI) and machine learning, with algorithms that can enhance image quality, speed up processing times, and potentially interpret images. Developments in nanotechnology and molecular imaging promise to open new frontiers in early disease detection and targeted therapy.

Challenges

Despite its immense contributions to healthcare, medical imaging faces challenges such as:

• Managing radiation exposure in X-ray and CT scans
• High costs of advanced imaging technologies
• Integrating AI and machine learning tools in clinical practice responsibly
• Ensuring access to advanced imaging services in underserved regions

Glossary of Medical Imaging Terms

• Acoustic Radiation Force Impulse Imaging - An imaging technique that shoots short pulses of ultrasound at targeted tissues and then monitors the tissue response in the form of shear waves that can be measured, and displayed as elastography images. These measurements and images can be used to diagnose or monitor the possible presence of diseased or cancerous tissue, based on the measured stiffness properties of tissues such as breast or liver where areas of increased stiffness may indicate the presence of tumors, fibrosis, scar tissue, and other types of disease or damage.
• Angiography - A diagnostic X-ray imaging procedure used to see how blood flows through the blood vessels and organs of the body. This is done by injecting special dyes, known as contrast agents, into the blood vessel and using x-ray techniques such as fluoroscopy to monitor blood flow. Examples include coronary angiography (heart), cerebral angiography (brain), and peripheral angiography (hands, arms, feet and legs).
• Biocompatibility - A measure of how a biomaterial interacts in the body with the surrounding cells, tissues and other factors. A biomaterial is considered to have good biocompatibility if it does not generate a vigorous immune response, resists build-up of proteins and other substances on its surface that would hinder its function, and is resistant to infection.
• Bioengineering - The application of concepts and methods of engineering, biology, medicine, physiology, physics, materials science.
• Bioinformatics - The branch of biology that is concerned with the acquisition, storage, display and analysis of biological information. Analysis of biological information includes statistical and computational methods to model biological processes.
• Biomaterial - Any matter, surface, or construct that interacts with biological systems. Biomaterials can be derived from nature or synthesized in the laboratory using metallic components, polymers , ceramics, or composite materials. Medical devices made of biomaterials are often used to replace or augment a natural function. Examples include heart valves, hip replacements, and materials used regularly in dentistry and surgery. * Biomedical Imaging - The science and the branch of medicine concerned with the development and use of imaging devices and techniques to obtain internal anatomic images and to provide biochemical and physiological analysis of tissues and organs.
• Biomimetics - Using biological form and function seen in nature to inspire the design of solutions to engineering problems.
• Bioreactor - A manufactured or engineered device that provides an environment that supports biological processes. Many bioreactors are used to grow cells or tissues for use in tissue engineering.
• Biosensors - A device that uses biological material, such as DNA, enzymes and antibodies, to detect specific biological, chemical, or physical processes and then transmits or reports this data.
• Blood-brain barrier - A highly selective, semi-impermeable boundary that divides the brain from the rest of the body. It allows the passage of vital molecules through specialized transport proteins and diffusion mechanisms.
• Brachytherapy - A form of radiation therapy in which one or more small radioactive sources is placed in or adjacent to an area requiring treatment. The dose rate and longevity of the radiation source is chosen to reflect the treatment plan and whether the radioactive material is left in place temporarily or permanently. A key feature of brachytherapy is that the radiation affects only a very localized area around the radiation source. Brachytherapy is commonly used to treat prostate, cervical and breast cancers. * Brain-Computer Interface - A system that uses the brain’s electrical signals to allow individuals with limited mobility to learn to use their thoughts to move a computer cursor or other devices like a robotic arm or a wheelchair.
• COVID-19 RT-PCR Test - The COVID-19 RT-PCR test is a real-time reverse transcription polymerase chain reaction test for the qualitative detection of nucleic acid from SARS-CoV-2.
• Cell Reprogramming - Changing the function of a cell using chemical, protein or even mechanical force. Most commonly, a cell, like a skin cell, may be treated with protein factors that reprogram it to become a stem cell that can then be reprogrammed, with various protein or chemical factors, to function as a different type of cell such as a liver, heart or nerve cell.
• Chemical gradient - The amount of a chemical changes over a specified distance, generally increasing from a lower to higher amount. The gradual increase in the amount of a chemical drives many processes in our body that allow cell growth.
• Clinical Decision Support System - An interactive software-based system designed to assist physicians and other health professionals as well as patients with diagnostic and treatment decisions and reminders. The system compiles and analyzes medical information from raw data, health observations, and other medical information sources.
• Computational Modeling - The use of mathematics, statistics, physics and computer science to study the mechanism and behavior of complex systems by computer simulation. A computational model contains numerous variables that characterize the system being studied. Simulation is done by adjusting these variables and observing how the changes affect the outcomes predicted by the model.
• Computed Tomography - A computerized X-ray imaging procedure in which a narrow beam of X-rays is aimed at a patient and quickly rotated around the body, producing signals that are processed by the machine’s computer to generate cross-sectional images—or “slices”—of the body. These slices are called tomographic images and contain more detailed information about the internal organs than conventional X-rays.
• Contrast agent - A substance used to enhance the imaged appearance of structures, processes or fluids within the body in biomedical imaging.
• Deep Brain Stimulation - A neurosurgical treatment utilizing a neurostimulator placed in the brain to deliver electrical signals to specific parts of the brain to help control unwanted movements such as in Parkinson’s disease or regulate the firing of neurons in the brain to help control the symptoms of disorders such as epilepsy or depression.
• Drug Delivery Systems - Engineered technologies for the targeted delivery and/or controlled release of therapeutic agents.
• Elastography - A medical imaging technique that measures the elasticity or stiffness of a tissue. The technique captures snapshots of shear waves, a special type of sound wave, as they move through the tissue. The stiffness of the tissue gives information about the possible presence of disease. For example tumors are harder than the surrounding normal tissue and disease livers are stiffer than healthy ones.
• Electroencephalography (EEG) - The recording of electrical activity along the scalp resulting from current flowing within the neurons of the brain. EEG can be used to diagnose epilepsy and other disorders associated with altered brain electrical activity.
• Electromagnetic Radiation - A kind of radiation including visible light, radio waves, gamma rays, and x-rays, in which electric and magnetic fields vary simultaneously. The different forms are differentiated by their wavelength and energy. For instance, visible light has relatively long wavelengths and less energy compared to x-rays or gamma rays with short wavelengths and high energy.
• Electroporation - Application of an external electrical field to increase the permeability of the cell membrane. It is usually used in molecular biology as a way of introducing some substance into a cell such as a drug, protein, or piece of DNA that can change the cell’s function.
• Endoscope - A thin illuminated flexible or rigid tube-like optical system used to examine the interior of a hollow organ or body cavity by direct insertion. Instruments can be attached for biopsy and surgery. Similar technology is used in a laparoscope.
• Exoskeleton - The external skeleton that supports and protects an animal’s body in contrast to the bones of an internal skeleton. Rehabilitation engineers have used this design in nature to develop exoskeletons that attach to the outside of the body and assist individuals with functions like arm and leg movement.
• Extracellular Matrix (ECM) - The ECM is a collection of extracellular molecules secreted by support cells that provides structural and biochemical support to the surrounding cells.
• Extracellular Vesicles - Extracellular vesicles (EVs) are nanosized, membrane-bound vesicles released from cells that can transport cargo-- including DNA, RNA, and proteins--between cells as a form of intercellular communication. For example, EVs released from healthy cells can carry DNA, RNA or proteins that help to direct repair of damaged tissues. EVs released from tumor cells can carry DNA, RNA, and proteins that act to help the tumor to metastasize to other tissues.
• Fluorescence - The emission of light by a substance that has absorbed light or other electromagnetic radiation. The absorbed and emitted light are usually different wavelengths and therefore produce different colors.
• Fluorophore - A fluorescent chemical compound that can re-emit light upon light excitation. Fluorophores are usually bonded to a molecule serving as a marker to stain tissues, cells, or materials in methods including fluorescent imaging and spectroscopy.
• Focused Ultrasound Blood-Brain Barrier Disruption - A non-invasive technology that uses high-frequency sound waves and microbubbles to reversibly open the blood-brain barrier. The ultrasound waves are emitted from a device called a transducer.
• Focused Ultrasound - A non-invasive therapeutic technique that directs ultrasonic waves to a specific location.
• Functional Magnetic Resonance Imaging (fMRI) - An MRI-based technique for measuring brain activity. It works by detecting the changes in blood oxygenation and flow that occur in response to neural activity – when a brain area is more active it consumes more oxygen and to meet this increased demand blood flow increases to the active area. fMRI can be used to produce activation maps showing which parts of the brain are involved in a particular mental process.
• Gamma Ray - Electromagnetic radiation of the shortest wavelength and the highest energy.
• Haptic Technology - A technology that provides the sense of touch to the user through forces, vibrations or motions. For medical procedures, haptic interfaces can improve minimally-invasive surgery by relaying the sense of pressure and touch through the instruments used by the surgeon. Haptic technology has been introduced into the design of prosthetics to provide sensory feedback to the user. 
• Hydrogel - A biomaterial made up of a network of polymer chains that are highly absorbent and as flexible as natural tissue. Hydrogels have a number of uses including as scaffolds for tissue engineering, as sustained release drug delivery systems, and as biosensors that are sensitive to specific molecules such as glucose. 
• Image-Guided Robotic Interventions - Medical procedures, primarily minimally invasive surgery, performed through a small incision or natural orifice using robotic tools operated remotely by a surgeon with visualization by devices such as cameras small enough to fit into a minimal incision. 
• Immunofluorescence - A biological staining technique in which the fluorescent signaling molecule is bound to an antibody to a protein of interest. When the “fluorescently tagged” antibody binds to its target protein the site or distribution of that protein can be visualized with the appropriate imaging devices. 
• Implantable Devices - Man-made medical devices implanted in the body to replace or augment biological functions. Such devices range from those that provide structural support, such as a hip replacement to those that contain electronics, such as pacemakers. Some implants are bioactive such as a drug-eluting stent used to open a blocked artery. 
• In vitro - A laboratory experiment or process performed in a test tube, culture dish, or elsewhere outside a living animal.
• Induced Pluripotent Stem Cell (iPSC) - A stem cell that is formed by the introduction of stem-cell inducing factors into a differentiated cell of the body, typically a skin cell. 
• Ionizing Radiation - A type of electromagnetic radiation that can strip electrons from an atom or molecule – a process called ionization. Ionizing radiation has a relatively short wavelength on the electromagnetic spectrum. Examples of ionizing radiation include gamma rays, and X-rays. Lower energy ultraviolet, visible light, infrared, microwaves, and radio waves are considered non-ionizing radiation. 
• Laparoscope - A thin, lighted telescope-like viewing instrument that is inserted through a small incision or natural orifice to examine and operate on abdominal and pelvic structures. Similar technology is used in an endoscope. “Laparo” is derived from the Greek root for abdomen and pelvis; however devices similar to laparoscopes are used for other parts of the body such as thorocoscopes for chest surgery. 
• Laser Doppler Imaging - A technique used to measure the total local microcirculatory blood perfusion including the perfusion in capillaries, arterioles, venules and shunting vessels. The technique is based on the emission of a scanning beam of laser light and the Doppler shift that occurs when light particles hit moving blood cells. 
• Magnetic Resonance Elastography (MRE) - A special MRI technique to capture snapshots of shear waves that move through the tissue and create “elastograms” or images that show tissue stiffness. MRE is used to non-invasively detect hardening of the liver caused by chronic liver disease. MRE also has the potential to diagnose diseases in other parts of the body. 
• Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI) - A non-invasive imaging technology used to investigate anatomy and function of the body in both health and disease without the use of damaging ionizing radiation. It is often used for disease detection, diagnosis, and treatment monitoring. It is based on sophisticated technology that excites and detects changes in protons found in the water that makes up living tissues. 
• Magnetic Resonance Spectroscopy (MRS) - A non-invasive analytic imaging technique used to study metabolic changes in diseases affecting the brain, including tumors, strokes, and seizures. The technique is also used to study the metabolism of other organs. MRS complements MRI as a non-invasive means for the characterization of tissue, by providing measure of the concentration of different chemical components within the tissue. 
• Mammography - An X-ray imaging method used to image the breast for the early detection of cancer and other breast diseases. It is used as both a diagnostic and screening tool. 
• Mesenchymal Stem Cells - A term used to define non-blood adult stem cells from a variety of tissues. However, it is not clear whether mesenchymal stem cells from different tissues are the same. 
• Microbubbles - Microscopic, preformed bubbles composed of varying materials that enable widespread applications. One application of microbubbles in medicine is as a contrast agent to help obtain clearer ultrasound images. 
• Microfluidics - A multidisciplinary field including engineering, physics, chemistry and biotechnology involving the design of systems for the precise control and manipulation of fluids on a small, sub-millimeter scale. Typically fluids are moved, mixed, separated or processed in various ways. 
• Microparticle - Particles between 0.1 and 100 m in size. A m is a micrometer, which is one-millionth of a meter. Man-made microparticles include ceramics, glass, polymers and metals. In biological systems, microparticles are small membrane- bound vesicles derived from cells circulating in the bloodstream. Microparticles are generally 1000 times larger than nanoparticles. 
• Microscopy - Using microscopes to view samples and objects that cannot be seen with the unaided eye.
• Minimally Invasive Surgery - A surgical procedure typically utilizing one or more small incisions through which laparoscopic surgical tools are inserted and manipulated by a surgeon. Minimally invasive surgery can reduce damage to surrounding healthy tissue, decrease the need for pain medication, and reduce patient recovery time. 
• Molecular Imaging - A discipline that involves the visualization of molecular processes and cellular functions in living organisms. With the inclusion of a biomarker, which interacts chemically with tissues and structures of interest, many imaging techniques can be used for molecular imaging including ultrasound, x-rays, magnetic resonance imaging, optical imaging, positron emission tomography, and single photon emission computed tomography. 
• Morphometry - The measurement of the form of living systems or their parts. In medicine, morphometry is often used to study changes in brain structure during development, aging and in response to disease. Researchers can measure anatomical features of the brain in terms of shape, mass and volume and derive various measures such as grey matter density and white matter connectivity using neuroimaging techniques and neuroinformatics. 
• Multiphoton Microscopy - An imaging technique that uses two or three-photon excitation of a fluorophore in a specimen. Fluorescence occurs when two or more photons of excitation light are absorbed by the specimen at the same time. Because excitation occurs only where photons coincide, there is reduced phototoxicity and photobleaching and greater depth penetration. Because of the reduced toxicity, the method is ideal for imaging living specimens especially when deep imaging is required. 
• Multiscale Modeling - Multiscale modeling uses mathematics and computation to quantitatively represent and simulate a system at more than one scale while functionally linking the mathematical models across these scales. Biological and behavioral scales include atomic, molecular, molecular complexes, sub-cellular, cellular, multi-cell systems, tissue, organ, multi-organ systems, organism/individual, group, organization, market, environment, and populations. 
• Nanoparticle - Ultrafine particles between 1 and 100 nanometers in size. The size is similar to that of most biological molecules and structures. Nanoparticles can be engineered for a wide variety of biomedical uses including diagnostic devices, contrast agents, physical therapy applications, and drug delivery vehicles. A nanoparticle is approximately 1/10,000 the width of a human hair. Nanoparticles are generally 1000 times smaller than microparticles. 
• Nanotechnology - The manipulation of matter with at least one dimension sized from 1 to 100 nanometers. Research areas include surface science, molecular biology, semiconductor physics, and microfabrication. Applications are diverse and include device physics, molecular self-assembly, and precisely manipulating atoms and molecules. 
• Near Infrared Spectroscopy (NIRS) - A spectroscopic method that uses the near-infrared region of the electromagnetic spectrum for pharmaceutical and medical diagnostics, typically measurements of blood sugar and blood oxygen levels. 
• Neuroimaging - Includes the use of a number of techniques to image the structure and function of the brain, spinal cord, and associated structures.
• Neuroprosthetics - A broad discipline of neuroscience and biomedical engineering concerned with developing devices that can substitute a motor, sensory or cognitive function lost due to injury or disease. Examples encompass a wide range including cochlear implants, visual prosthetics, and brain-computer interfaces for conscious control of movement in paralyzed individuals. 
• Nuclear Medicine - A medical specialty that uses radioactive tracers (radiopharmaceuticals) to assess bodily functions and to diagnose and treat disease. Diagnostic nuclear medicine relies heavily on imaging techniques that measure cellular function and physiology. 
• Oncoprotein - A protein encoded by an oncogene which can cause the transformation of a cell into a tumor cell if introduced into it.
• Optical Coherence Tomography (OCT) - A technique for obtaining sub-surface images such as diseased tissue just below the skin. For example, ophthalmologists use OCT to obtain detailed images from within the retina. Cardiologists also use it to help diagnose coronary artery disease. 
• Optical Imaging - A technique for non-invasively looking inside the body, as is done with x-rays. Unlike x-rays, which use ionizing radiation, optical imaging uses visible light and the special properties of photons to obtain detailed images of organs and tissues as well as smaller structures including cells and molecules. 
• Perfusable - The movement of fluid through blood vessels to a cell tissue or an organ, generally referring to blood.
• Photon - A particle of light or electromagnetic radiation. The energies of photons range from high-energy gamma rays and x-rays to low-energy radio waves. 
• Piezoelectric Crystals - Crystals in the transducer of an ultrasound device that vibrate when an electric signal is applied, emitting high- frequency sound pressure waves. The crystals are the crucial component of an ultrasound device both producing and detecting the ultrasound waves used to image structures inside of the body. 
• Point-of-Care - Testing and treating of patients at sites close to where they live. Rapid diagnostic tests are used to obtain immediate, on-site results. The success of the concept relies on portable, rapid diagnostic devices that provide results directly to the user, which allows health care workers in remote areas to test and treat patients at the time of the visit. 
• Polymer - A large molecule composed of many repeating subunits. Polymers range from familiar synthetic plastics such as polystyrene to natural biopolymers such as DNA. Polymers have unique physical properties, including strength, flexibility and elasticity. 
• Positron Emission Tomography (PET) - PET scans use radiopharmaceuticals to create 3 dimensional images. The decay of the radiotracers used with PET scans produce small particles called positrons. When positrons react with electrons in the body they annihilate each other. This annihilation produces two photons that shoot off in opposite directions. The detectors in the PET scanner measure these photons and use this information to create images of internal organs. 
• Progenitor Cells - Progenitor cells are cells that are similar to stem cells but instead of the ability to become any type of cell, they are already predisposed to develop into a particular type of cell. 
• Prosthetics - The design, fabrication, and fitting of artificial body parts.
• Radiation - The emission of energy as electromagnetic waves or as moving subatomic particles, especially high-energy particles that cause ionization.
• Radiopharmaceuticals/radioactive tracers - Radioactive tracers are made up of carrier molecules that are bonded tightly to a radioactive atom. The carrier molecule is designed to bind to the tissue being examined so that the radioactive atom can be scanned to produce an image from inside the body. 
• Raman Spectroscopy - This technique relies on inelastic scattering of visible, near-infrared, or near-ultraviolet light that is delivered by a laser. The laser light interacts with molecular vibrations in the material being examined, and shifts in energy are measured that reveal information about the properties of the material. The technique has a wide variety of applications including identifying chemical compounds and characterizing the structure of materials and crystals. In medicine, Raman gas analyzers are used to monitor anesthetic gas mixtures during surgery. 
• Rapid diagnostic test - Rapid diagnostic tests (RDTs) are medical diagnostic tests that provide quick results and can be used in various settings. Results are typically indicated in an hour or less. Pregnancy testing is one example of an RDT, producing results within several minutes. RDTs have become a widely used method to detect a range of infections using blood, saliva, or urine samples. Examples of infections for which RDTs have been developed include malaria, strep throat, STDs, and HIV. Reliable and accurate COVID-19 RDTs are a goal of NIBIB’s Rapid Acceleration of Diagnostics Tech (RADx Tech) initiative.
• Regenerative Medicine - A broad field that includes tissue engineering but also incorporates research on self-healing – where the body uses its own systems, sometimes with the help of foreign biological material to rebuild tissues and organs. 
• Rehabilitation Engineering - The use of engineering science and principles to develop technological solutions and devices to assist individuals with disabilities, and aid the recovery of physical and cognitive functions lost because of disease or injury. 
• Robotic Surgery - Surgery performed through very small incisions or natural orifices using thin finger-like robotic tools controlled remotely by the surgeon through a telemanipulator or computer interface. 
• Scaffold - A structure of artificial or natural materials on which tissue is grown to mimic a biological process outside the body or to replace a disease or damaged tissue inside the body. 
• Sensors - In medicine and biotechnology, sensors are tools that detect specific biological, chemical, or physical processes and then transmit or report this data. Some sensors work outside the body while others are designed to be implanted within the body. Sensors help health care providers and patients monitor health conditions. Sensors are also used to monitor the safety of medicines, foods and other environmental substances we may encounter. 
• Single Photon Emission Computed Tomography (SPECT) - A nuclear medicine imaging technique using gamma rays. SPECT imaging instruments provide 3 dimensional images of the distribution of radioactive tracer molecules that have been introduced into the patient’s body. The 3D images are computer generated from a large number of images of the body recorded at different angles by cameras that rotate around the patient. 
• Spectroscopy - the branch of science concerned with the investigation and measurement of spectra produced when matter interacts with or emits electromagnetic radiation. 
• Stem Cell - An undifferentiated cell of a multicellular organism that is capable of giving rise to more of the same cell type indefinitely, and has the ability to differentiate into many other types of cells that form the structures of the body. 
• Structural Biology - The study of the structure of large biomolecules like proteins and nucleic acids, how the structure relates to the function of the molecule, and how alterations in structure affect function. Various methods such as crystallography are used to gain information about the structure of a molecule. This information is often analyzed with bioinformatics techniques to obtain or solve the structure of the molecule. 
• Structured Illumination Microscopy (SIM) - A form of super high resolution microscopy designed to capture extremely clear images of cells and molecules, even when they are moving quickly. The sophisticated technique uses a number of filters and other light processors to rapidly scan images, combine multiple images, and eliminate out of focus light in order to obtain super-resolution images of cells and subcellular structures in motion. 
• Synchrotron - A large circular facility/device that accelerates sub-atomic particles in a magnetic field in a circular path that generates electromagnetic radiation with a defined exit (beam line). One type of synchrotron (a synchrotron light source) converts a high-energy beam of electrons into high-energy x-rays that can be used in a number of applications including biomedical imaging. 
• Telehealth - The use of communications technologies to provide and support health care at a distance.
• Tesla - An international unit to describe the strength of a magnetic field.
• Theranostics - The relatively experimental science of combining therapy and diagnosis into a single procedure or molecule. Towards this end, bioengineers are building multi-functional nanoparticles that can be introduced into a patient, find the site of disease, diagnose the condition, and deliver the appropriate, personalized therapy. 
• Tissue Engineering - An interdisciplinary and multidisciplinary field that aims at the development of biological substitutes that restore, maintain, or improve tissue function. 
• Ultrasound - A form of acoustic energy, or sound, that has a frequency that is higher than the level of human hearing. As a medical diagnostic technique, high frequency sound waves are used to provide real-time medical imaging image inside the body without exposure to ionizing radiation. As a therapeutic technique, high frequency sound waves interact with tissues to destroy diseased tissue such as tumors, or to modify tissues, or target drugs to specific locations in the body. 
• X-rays - A form of high energy electromagnetic radiation that can pass through most objects, including the body. X-rays travel through the body and strike an x-ray detector (such as radiographic film, or a digital x-ray detector) on the other side of the patient, forming an image that represents the “shadows” of objects inside the body.
• glycosaminoglycans (GAGs) - GAGs are a main component of the ECM and are linked to the fibrous proteins in the ECM which include collagen, elastin, fibronectin, and laminin.
• mHealth - An abbreviation for mobile health, which is the practice of medicine and public health supported with mobile devices such as mobile phones for health services and information. 

More medical imaging related terms

• 4DCT - A technique in medical imaging that captures three-dimensional images over time, adding the dimension of motion to CT scans.
• AIR (program) - Automatic Image Registration, a software tool for aligning images from different modalities or time points.
• Algebraic reconstruction technique - A computational method used in computerized tomography for reconstructing images from projection data.
• Altropane - A radiopharmaceutical used in brain imaging to study the dopamine transporter system.
• Ambivu 3D Workstation - Software for visualizing and interpreting medical imaging data in three dimensions.
• Ambra Health - A cloud-based medical imaging management company that provides solutions for storing, viewing, and sharing radiology images.
• Amplitude of low frequency fluctuations - A measure used in functional MRI to assess the brain's spontaneous fluctuations in signal intensity over time.
• Anthropometry - The measurement and analysis of the human body and its parts, often used in creating computational human phantoms for imaging simulation.
• Aphelion (software) - Image processing software designed for advanced analysis and visualization of medical images.
• Applied Spectral Imaging - A company specializing in the development of spectral imaging technologies for medical and biomedical applications.
• Arterial input function - A concept in dynamic imaging studies that describes the concentration of a tracer in the arterial blood over time.
• BI-RADS - Breast Imaging-Reporting and Data System, a standardized breast imaging terminology developed by the American College of Radiology.
• Barco (manufacturer) - A company that produces displays and visualization solutions for medical imaging.
• Biomedical Systems - Companies or systems that integrate biology and technology in the development or application of medical imaging devices and software.
• Bone scintigraphy - A nuclear medicine imaging technique used to diagnose and monitor various bone diseases by detecting areas of high bone turnover.
• CONN (functional connectivity toolbox) - A software toolbox for analyzing functional connectivity and brain networks from fMRI data.
• CT Gastrography - A specialized CT scan technique used to visualize the stomach and diagnose gastrointestinal disorders.
• Cardiovascular technologist - A healthcare professional specialized in performing diagnostic imaging tests related to the heart and blood vessels.
• Carestream Health - A global provider of medical imaging systems and solutions, including digital imaging technologies.
• Caret (software) - A software application designed for the analysis and visualization of structural and functional neuroimaging data.
• Cephalometry - The study and measurement of the dimensions of the head, often using radiographic techniques, for orthodontic and craniofacial applications.
• Collimated transmission theory - A theory describing the properties and behavior of collimated light or radiation beams, especially in the context of imaging.
• Colocalization Benchmark Source - A resource or tool for assessing the accuracy of techniques that measure the colocalization of biological markers in imaging data.
• Computational human phantom - A digital model of the human body used in computer simulations to study the interactions of electromagnetic fields and ionizing radiation with human tissues.
• Computed Corpuscle Sectioning - A technique or concept related to the digital reconstruction of three-dimensional structures from sectional imaging data.
• Cone beam reconstruction - A method used in dental and maxillofacial imaging to reconstruct a three-dimensional image from cone-shaped X-ray beams.
• Contrast resolution - The ability of an imaging system to distinguish between differences in intensity in an image.
• Corneal topography - A non-invasive imaging technique for mapping the surface curvature of the cornea, important in eye care and surgery planning.
• Cranial ultrasound - An imaging procedure that uses high-frequency sound waves to visualize the brain structures in infants through the fontanelles.
• Crowther criterion - A criterion used in the reconstruction of images from tomography, relating to the resolution and number of projections required.
• Current density imaging - An imaging modality that maps the electrical conductivity within a body, providing insights into tissue composition and function.
• DICOMweb - A web-based version of the DICOM standard, facilitating the access and transfer of medical images over the internet.
• DVTk - A software testing toolkit for DICOM communications, allowing users to validate the interoperability of medical imaging devices and systems.
• Deep learning in photoacoustic imaging - The application of deep learning algorithms to enhance the processing and interpretation of photoacoustic imaging data.
• Depth kymography - An imaging technique that provides a dynamic, depth-resolved view of vibratory tissue motion, such as vocal cord vibrations.
• Dextrobeam - A technology or system used in the three-dimensional visualization of molecular structures, potentially applicable in medical imaging.
• Diagnostic Health Corporation - A company providing diagnostic imaging services, including MRI, CT scans, and ultrasound.
• Diagnostic medical sonography - The use of ultrasound imaging to diagnose medical conditions, especially in obstetrics, cardiology, and abdominal imaging.
• Diagnostically acceptable irreversible compression - A concept in medical imaging referring to the compression of image data to save space while maintaining diagnostic quality.
• Diffeomorphometry - The study of anatomical shape variation and its changes over time using diffeomorphic mappings in medical imaging.
• Diffuse correlation spectrometry - A non-invasive optical technique for measuring blood flow by detecting scattered light fluctuations.
• Diffuse optical imaging - An imaging modality that uses near-infrared light to non-invasively probe the optical properties of biological tissues.
• Digital Morse theory - A computational approach inspired by Morse theory, applied in the analysis and processing of digital images.
• Digital variance angiography - An imaging technique that enhances the visibility of blood vessels in angiographic images by highlighting areas of variance.
• Dose-fractionation theorem - A principle in radiation therapy that describes how the total dose and number of fractions affect the treatment's efficacy and side effects.
• Dual X-ray absorptiometry and laser - A technique combining DXA with laser technology to improve bone density measurements or tissue characterization.
• Dual-energy X-ray absorptiometry - An imaging technique used to assess bone mineral density and diagnose osteoporosis.
• EIDORS - Electrical Impedance and Diffuse Optical Reconstruction Software, an open-source project for reconstructing images from electrical impedance tomography and diffuse optical tomography data.
• Effective dose (radiation) - A measure of the radiation dose that considers the varying sensitivity of different tissues and organs to radiation.
• Elastix (image registration) - A software tool for the registration of medical images, allowing the alignment of datasets from different times or sensors.
• Elastography - An imaging technique that measures the elasticity or stiffness of tissues, useful in diagnosing liver fibrosis and tumors.
• Electrical impedance tomography - A non-invasive imaging technique that reconstructs an image of the electrical conductivity within a body.
• Elscint - A former manufacturer of medical imaging equipment, known for innovations in CT and MRI technologies.
• Endomicroscopy - A technique that provides microscopic imaging of internal tissues in vivo, often used in gastrointestinal and respiratory tract examinations.
• Enterprise imaging - The strategy and technology solutions used by healthcare organizations to manage, store, and share medical imaging data across the enterprise.
• FUJIFILM VisualSonics - A company specializing in ultra high-frequency ultrasound and photoacoustic imaging systems for preclinical research.
• Fiducial marker - A marker placed in or on the body to act as a point of reference for medical imaging or treatment planning.
• Flat-panel detector - A type of digital X-ray detector used in radiography and fluoroscopy, offering advantages in sensitivity and image quality.
• Fluorescence image-guided surgery - A surgical technique that uses fluorescent markers to highlight tissues of interest, such as tumors, during surgery.
• Focus assessed transthoracic echocardiography - A simplified, rapid echocardiographic technique to assess cardiac function in emergency and critical care settings.
• Fractional anisotropy - A measure used in diffusion tensor imaging to quantify the degree of anisotropy of a diffusion process.
• Functional imaging - Imaging techniques that focus on physiological activity within the body, such as blood flow, metabolic processes, and brain activity.
• Functional neuroimaging - A subset of functional imaging techniques used to measure an aspect of brain function, often with the aim of understanding neurological and psychiatric conditions.
• G-arm medical imaging - A biplane x-ray imaging system that provides two simultaneous views of the patient, used in surgery and interventional radiology.
• Genetic significant dose - A measure of the genetic risk associated with exposure to ionizing radiation, considering potential effects on future generations.
• Ghosting (medical imaging) - An artifact in medical images where structures appear smeared or duplicated due to motion or other errors during image acquisition.
• Gordon Center for Medical Imaging - A research center dedicated to advancing the field of medical imaging.
• HARP (algorithm) - Harmonic Phase, an algorithm used in cardiac MRI to measure myocardial motion and strain.
• Hepatogram - An imaging study or graphical representation that displays the distribution and function of the liver.
• Hosaka–Cohen transformation - A mathematical transformation used in the processing of biomedical signals and images.
• Howard Sochurek - A figure or entity associated with the development or application of medical imaging technologies or methodologies.
• INFINITT Healthcare - A company providing comprehensive medical imaging and information solutions, including PACS and cloud-based services.
• Image registration - The process of aligning two or more images of the same scene, often necessary in medical imaging to compare patient data over time or from different imaging modalities.
• Imaging phantom - An object with known geometry and material properties used to calibrate or test the performance of an imaging system.
• Instruments used in radiology - Tools, devices, and equipment employed in the practice of radiology to acquire and analyze medical images.
• Interior reconstruction - A method in tomographic imaging that focuses on reconstructing an image from data acquired within a limited region of interest.
• Interventional neuroradiology - A subspecialty of radiology focusing on minimally invasive diagnostic and therapeutic procedures in the vascular system of the brain and spinal cord.
• Intracoronary optical coherence tomography - A catheter-based imaging technique used in cardiology to visualize the inside of coronary arteries in detail.
• Intravascular imaging - Imaging techniques, such as IVUS and OCT, that provide detailed images of the inside of blood vessels.
• Invoke Image Display - A feature or standard in medical imaging systems that allows for the requesting and displaying of images across different platforms.
• Isabelle M. Germano - A notable figure in the field of medical imaging, possibly associated with specific research, technology development, or clinical practice.
• Isosurface - A surface that represents points of a constant value within a volume of space, used in 3D visualization of medical images.
• Iterative reconstruction - A method used in CT scans and other imaging modalities to improve image quality or reduce radiation dose by iteratively refining the image reconstruction.
• Jayaram K. Udupa - A researcher or influencer in medical imaging known for contributions to image analysis, segmentation, or visualization technologies.
• Kaczmarz method - An iterative algorithm used for solving systems of linear equations, applicable in image reconstruction techniques such as CT.
• Kymograph - An early imaging device or technique used to record changes in physiological processes over time, such as muscle contractions or heartbeats.
• LI-RADS - Liver Imaging Reporting and Data System, a standardized system for interpreting and reporting imaging findings in liver lesions.
• Life Image - A company or platform that facilitates the sharing and management of medical imaging data across healthcare systems and providers.
• MICAD - Molecular Imaging and Contrast Agent Database, a resource providing information on molecular imaging agents and their applications.
• Machlett Laboratories - A historical entity or company associated with the development or manufacture of equipment or materials for medical imaging.
• Magnetic field imaging - Imaging techniques that visualize the magnetic fields produced by the body, such as in magnetoencephalography (MEG).
• Magnetic resonance elastography - A non-invasive MRI technique that measures the mechanical properties of tissues, useful in detecting liver fibrosis.
• Magnetogastrography - An imaging modality that records the magnetic fields generated by the stomach's electrical activity, used in gastrointestinal studies.
• Medcyclopaedia - An online encyclopedia or resource containing information on medical imaging, anatomy, and related topics.
• Medical animation - The use of animation technology to create educational and explanatory videos about medical topics, procedures, and functions.
• Medical imaging in pregnancy - The use and considerations of medical imaging techniques during pregnancy, focusing on safety and diagnostic value.
• Medical imaging - The techniques and processes used to create images of the human body (or parts and functions thereof) for clinical purposes or medical science.
• Medical ultrasound - An imaging technique that uses high-frequency sound waves to visualize organs, tissues, and blood flow inside the body.
• Medipix - A family of pixel detector technologies designed for high-resolution imaging in medical, scientific, and industrial applications.
• Meibography - An imaging technique specifically used to visualize and assess the meibomian glands in the eyelids, important in diagnosing dry eye conditions.
• MicroDicom - Software for viewing and managing DICOM images, providing tools for analyzing, converting, and sharing medical images.
• Molecular imaging - A branch of medical imaging that visualizes biological processes at the molecular and cellular levels within intact living organisms.
• Multiple scattering low coherence interferometry - An optical imaging technique that characterizes tissue structure by analyzing light scattered multiple times.
• Multiscale motion mapping - A technique used in cardiac imaging to visualize and quantify the mechanical motion of the heart across different spatial scales.
• Multispectral optoacoustic tomography - An imaging modality that combines optical and ultrasound techniques to visualize tissue at various depths with high resolution.
• Nanotomography - High-resolution tomographic imaging at the nanoscale, applicable in material science, biology, and medical research.
• Neutron stimulated emission computed tomography - An experimental imaging technique using neutrons to induce gamma-ray emission for internal imaging.
• Nicholas Ayache - A significant contributor to the field of medical imaging, known for advancements in image analysis and computational models of the human body.
• Non-contact thermography - A method of measuring temperature distributions on surfaces from a distance, applicable in medical diagnostics and research.
• Octreotide scan - A type of nuclear medicine imaging test that uses the radiolabeled compound octreotide to detect certain types of tumors.
• Optical coherence elastography - An imaging technique that combines optical coherence tomography with elastography to measure tissue stiffness.
• Ordered subset expectation maximization - An iterative method used in image reconstruction to speed up the processing of emission tomography data.
• Orthanc (server) - An open-source, lightweight DICOM server for healthcare professionals to manage and store medical imaging data.
• Orthogonal polarization spectral imaging - An imaging technique that enhances the visualization of microcirculation and blood flow in tissues.
• PI-RADS - Prostate Imaging Reporting and Data System, a structured reporting scheme for evaluating the prostate on MRI.
• Particle-induced gamma emission - A technique where particles are used to induce gamma radiation in materials, potentially applicable in material analysis and medical imaging.
• Passive dual coil resonator - A component or technology used in MRI systems to enhance signal reception or transmission.
• Perfusion scanning - Imaging techniques that measure the flow of blood through tissues, useful in assessing organ function and identifying abnormalities.
• Phantom structure - A term relating to the design and composition of imaging phantoms used for calibration, testing, or research in medical imaging.
• Phase space measurement with forward modeling - A computational approach used in imaging science to predict and analyze complex systems.
• Photoacoustic imaging - An imaging modality that combines optical and ultrasound technologies to produce images based on the photoacoustic effect.
• Photoactivated localization microscopy - A super-resolution imaging technique that allows for the visualization of structures at the nanoscale using fluorescent molecules.
• Photographic plate - A medium used historically for recording images produced by X-rays or gamma rays in radiography.
• Photomultiplier tube - A device used in medical imaging to detect and amplify light signals, crucial in modalities such as PET scans.
• Portable magnetic resonance imaging - Compact and mobile MRI systems designed for use in various settings, including bedside imaging.
• Positron Corporation - A company or entity associated with the development or manufacture of medical imaging equipment, particularly in positron emission tomography.
• Preclinical imaging - Imaging techniques and applications used in the study of disease models and drug development in laboratory animals.
• Pretargeting (imaging) - A strategy in molecular imaging and radioimmunotherapy where a targeting molecule and a separately administered imaging or therapeutic agent are used in sequence for enhanced specificity.
• RTI-121 - A radiolabeled compound used in research or diagnostic applications, potentially in the study of neurotransmitter systems.
• RTI-229 - Similar to RTI-121, a radiolabeled compound that may be used in scientific research or medical diagnostics.
• RTI-32 - Another compound in the series used for research purposes, possibly related to imaging or therapeutic studies of neurological conditions.
• RTI-51 - A radiotracer used in positron emission tomography (PET) or single-photon emission computed tomography (SPECT) to study cerebral blood flow or neurotransmitter systems.
• RTI-55 - A psychoactive compound used as a radioligand in neuroimaging to visualize dopamine and serotonin transporters.
• Radiology - The branch of medicine that uses imaging technologies to diagnose and treat diseases.
• Region of interest - A specific area within an image that is singled out for analysis or processing in medical imaging studies.
• Resting state fMRI - A functional MRI technique that measures brain activity by detecting changes associated with blood flow when the subject is at rest.
• Right heart strain - A condition that can be diagnosed using imaging techniques, indicating stress or damage to the right side of the heart.
• Roentgen stereophotogrammetry - A method used to measure the movement of bones or implants within the body with high precision, using stereoscopic X-ray images.
• Rotational angiography - An imaging technique that involves rotating the X-ray source and detector around the patient to obtain multiple angiographic images from different angles.
• SAMV (algorithm) - Smoothed Alternating Minimization for Variance, an algorithm used in image reconstruction and processing.
• Semiconductor detector - A device used in medical imaging to detect radiation, offering advantages in resolution and sensitivity.
• Shinnar–Le Roux algorithm - An algorithm used in MRI for designing radiofrequency pulses, improving image quality and reducing scan times.
• Simultaneous algebraic reconstruction technique - An advanced algorithm for reconstructing images from projection data, commonly used in CT imaging.
• Single photon absorptiometry - A technique used to measure bone mineral density, involving the absorption of gamma rays by bone.
• Spectral imaging (radiography) - An imaging technique that captures images at multiple wavelengths, enhancing contrast and detail in radiographic images.
• Spectronic - A term or brand associated with spectroscopy or spectral imaging technologies in medical applications.
• Spinal Cord Toolbox - An open-source software project for the analysis of spinal cord MRI data.
• Standardized uptake value - A quantitative measure used in PET imaging to assess how much of the radiotracer has been taken up by the tissue of interest.
• Strain–encoded magnetic resonance imaging - An MRI technique that encodes tissue strain in the image, useful for assessing myocardial function.
• Studierfenster - An open-access platform or software for medical image processing and visualization.
• Thermoacoustic imaging - An imaging technique that uses the thermoacoustic effect, where pulsed electromagnetic energy (such as microwaves or radio waves) is converted into acoustic signals by tissues.
• Time-activity curve - A graphical representation that shows how the concentration of a tracer in a particular region changes over time, used in dynamic imaging studies.
• Tissue cytometry - The quantitative analysis of tissue sections, often using imaging techniques to measure cellular characteristics.
• Tomoelastography - A tomographic imaging technique that maps the mechanical properties of tissues, combining principles of elastography with tomographic reconstruction.
• Tomographic reconstruction - The process of creating a three-dimensional image from two-dimensional cross-sections, a fundamental technique in CT, PET, and MRI.
• Tomography - A broad term for imaging by sections or sectioning, through the use of any kind of penetrating wave.
• Transconvolution - A process or technique in image processing that aims to deconvolve or reverse the effects of convolution on an image, improving clarity or resolving specific features.
• Transient hepatic attenuation differences - Variations in liver density seen on imaging studies, often related to changes in blood flow or liver function.
• Vaginogram - An imaging study of the vagina, typically performed with contrast material to assess anatomy and function.
• Viatronix - A company or software solution specializing in medical imaging and diagnostic software, possibly focusing on virtual colonoscopy or similar applications.
• Videokymography - A high-speed imaging technique used to analyze the motion of the vocal cords during phonation.
• Videostroboscopy - An imaging method that uses stroboscopic light to visualize vocal cord vibration, aiding in the diagnosis of voice disorders.
• Visible light imaging - Medical imaging techniques that use the visible spectrum of light, as opposed to ionizing radiation or sound waves.
• VistA Imaging - A component of the Veterans Health Information Systems and Technology Architecture (VistA) that manages medical images and diagnostic reports.
• WIN-35428 - A compound used in neuroimaging as a radioligand, particularly in the study of dopamine transporters.
• X-ray detector - A device used in radiography that captures and converts X-rays into visible images or electronic signals.
• X-ray image intensifier - A device that enhances the brightness of X-ray images, improving visibility for diagnosis or interventional procedures.
• X-ray microtomography - A technique for high-resolution imaging of the internal structure of objects, using X-rays to create cross-sectional images that can be assembled into a 3D model.

See Also

• Radiology
• Interventional Radiology
• Radiologic Technologist
• Medical Physics
• Biomedical Engineering

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